How the role of battery minerals in facilitating a diversified energy landscape

Introduction

At the heart of the changing energy landscape lies the ascension of renewable energy sources like solar, geothermal, and wind which are strategically postured to hasten the renewable energy trajectory for industry adoption (Usiagu et al., 2024). However, these renewables present a unique challenge: their intermittent attributes require efficient and infallible energy storage solutions (Hussain et al., 2024).

Battery minerals can play a crucial role in the transition to a renewable energy future. It is paramount to understand their role in integrating renewables into the grid, analysis of the current and projected demand, and challenges and opportunities associated with sustainable and ethical sourcing practices. Additionally, it is noteworthy to emphasise advancements in battery technology, potential alternatives, and the role of policy in securing a responsible and sustainable future for energy storage solutions.

Figure 1 shows areas in the USA that could contain minerals that are critical for lithium-ion battery production. Those minerals include Nickel (green), lithium (blue), cobalt (red), graphite (black) and manganese (brown), USGS 2021.

Battery minerals for energy diversification

Energy storage: The Powerhouse of EVs: Energy storage plays a critical role in the success of electric vehicles (EVs). Unlike gasoline-powered cars that hold fuel directly, EVs rely on batteries to store electrical energy. These batteries power the electric motor, enabling the vehicle to run. Lithium-ion batteries are currently the dominant technology in EVs due to their high-energy density, meaning they can pack a lot of power in a small space (Alanazi, 2023). This translates to longer driving ranges for EVs. However, research is ongoing to develop even better options. Technologies like lithium-sulphur and zinc-air batteries show potentially greater energy density and are more environmentally friendly due to the use of oxygen as a reactant, reducing heavy metal use for battery construction (Nazir et al., 2024).

Beyond powering the vehicle itself, energy storage can play a role in the bigger picture of EV adoption. Large-scale energy storage systems can help to integrate renewable energy sources like solar and wind into the grid. This is crucial because these renewables are variable, meaning their output can fluctuate. Lithium-ion batteries can store excess renewable energy and charging and discharging efficiencies supports easy scalability and widescale deployment of the technology (Dutta, 2024). The centre of gravity for EVs is energy storage and as battery technology undergoes rapid advancements and next-generation large-scale storage solutions evolve, EVs can solidify their position as a clean and desirable mode of transportation.

Economic and strategic importance: Advanced battery technologies hold significant economic and strategic value beyond electric vehicle applications:

• Clean energy: Advanced batteries can unlock the full potential of renewables like solar and wind. Hybrid solutions maximise efficiency and reliability through integrated systems while reducing dependency on fossil fuels, boosting energy security and combating climate change (Hassan et al., 2023). By storing excess power and discharging it during peak demand, batteries can facilitate grid stability and enable a more reliable, low-carbon electricity network.
• Economic powerhouse: Battery innovation fuels new industries and jobs. From electric vehicles to home energy storage, the demand skyrocketing and sustainable adaptation accelerates widescale potential (Amir et al., 2023). This could create a thriving domestic battery sector, boosting economic growth and competitiveness.

The evolution of battery technologies represents a potential cornerstone for achieving a sustainable and resilient energy future. This potential could be the foundational role that battery advancements play in building a clean and secure energy system. Considering the pivotal role of battery energy storage capacity (BESC) in enabling a clean energy transition and fostering economic growth, strategic investments in this technology are paramount for national energy security and economic competitiveness.

Usage of key battery minerals; lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese and graphite

The burgeoning demand for high-performance batteries stems from the concurrent rise of electric vehicles (EVs), grid-scale renewable energy integration, and ever-more-powerful portable electronics. Underlying the efficiency, longevity, and energy density of these batteries is a synergistic interplay between five key materials: lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, and graphite. Each element plays a distinct and crucial role in the electrochemical reactions that power li-ion batteries, the current market leader due to their superior performance metrics.

Lithium is one of the key minerals on the list. It is soft and has low density which allows for a large storage capacity compared to its actual size. As such, batteries can be made smaller and can be more easily implemented into electric cars for example. This element exists in abundance and no shortage is expected to occur.

Nickel is the fifth-most common element on earth and can be found widespread in the earth’s crust and core. It also occurs naturally in soil and water. Nickel occurs in two general types of ores, sulphides and oxides. About 68% of world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 9% for plating, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, and only 5% in other applications such as cathodes for rechargeable batteries (Eramet, 2009, Barnett, 2010). From 1899 onwards nickel-cadmium batteries were readily built. However, not until 1989 were rechargeable nickel batteries commercially available.

Besides terrestrial sources, there are significant nickel deposits in the deep sea. Manganese nodules, which are found on the deep-sea floor, contain significant amounts of nickel. Recent estimates indicate more than 300 million tons of nickel contained in such deposits. The development of deep-sea mining technologies is expected to facilitate access to these resources in future (USGS 2022).

Fundamentally, Cobalt is a byproduct of mining nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron and is only found in the Earth’s crust. It boasts 2 inherent properties crucial for battery applications: thermal stability and high energy density. Its unique properties stabilise layered structures in Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2), a dominant force in the 3C market (consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and computer electronics) (Binbin et al., 2022). Cobalt’s unique properties are vital for energy storage and powering the clean energy transition. This high-performing material boasts impressive voltage, conductivity, and density, making it essential for a sustainable energy future.

Manganese is a key ingredient in lithium-ion batteries, especially for electric vehicles and acts as a stabiliser in the structure of cathode materials, which are the key drivers of lithium-ion batteries. Manganese is also used in the battery electrolyte of dry batteries, which is made up of zinc chloride or ammonium chloride. About 80% of the known world manganese resources are in South Africa; other important manganese deposits are in Ukraine, Australia, India, China, Gabon and Brazil. Seabed deposits of manganese resources are larger than those on land but so far, no full study has been performed to fully quantify the available deposits, USGS 2017.

The clean, sustainable energy revolution hinges on efficient storage solutions, and graphite emerges as a critical, yet often overlooked, player. Even though cobalt is integral for cathodes in lithium-ion battery production, graphite quietly underpins their functionality and is currently an economically feasible, minimally toxic and highly abundant anode material (Insinna et al., 2023). Graphite finds application in the anodes of lithium-ion batteries – the dominant rechargeable battery technology for portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and renewable energy storage systems (U.S. Geological Survey, 2023).

One of the key advantages of graphite is its electrical conductivity, which enables electron flow efficiencies within batteries. Additionally, a layered structure permits reversible intercalation (insertion) and de-intercalation (extraction) of lithium ions – a crucial process for battery charging and discharging (Miki et al., 2024). This unique combination of properties makes graphite an essential component for achieving optimal battery performance.

Mineral exploration

Geological, geochemical and geophysical methods are used to prospect for lithium. Many of these methods are conducted by academic and government sources. Geophysical applications such as gravity and electromagnetic measurements are tools that can pinpoint and locate deposits and assess their size and economic value.

Brine-rich groundwater has a high potential to contain lithium. EM is used to identify areas that have the capability and capacity to host concentrated large-sized lithium accumulations. Besides EM, seismic, specifically acoustic impedance is being used to identify structures, faults and depth of groundwater accumulations. Magnetotelluric together with log resistivity measurements, can delineate transitions, lenses, and continuity of brine pay and fresh water, Dudley C. 2022.

Atomic absorption spectrometry AAS can be used to determine concentrations of lithium in solid and rock samples. AAS is an analytical technique used to determine how much of a certain element is in a sample. Atoms and ions absorb light at a specific wavelength that’s unique for each element and by focusing on wavelengths that are linked to lithium, this element can be detected. Measuring the amount of absorbed light will determine the concentration of lithium in a specific sample (Figure 2).

Airborne electromagnetics (AEM) is one of the most commonly used methods for nickel exploration. AEM measures the electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility of nickel-bearing rocks and is easily applied.

Seismic data is a tool that allows us to map depth, thickness, and geometry of nickel-bearing ore bodies and reveal faults and fractures. Knowledge of these subsurface features is essential when planning the mine.

Hyperspectral imaging involves capturing and analysing images of the earth’s surface. It can detect the presence of nickel and associated minerals by measuring the reflectance and absorption properties. It is mainly applied from satellites, but specifically equipped aircrafts and drones can be utilised. Commonly, the interpretation of the light spectra in relation to certain deposits is calibrated to measurements obtained by handheld devices. Figure 3 presents the absorption spectra of hexaamminenickel(II) ion.

Cobalt is a by-product of other minerals such as nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron and exploration methods relevant to those elements are being applied to discover economically valid accumulations. Those include gravity and magnetic measurements, seismic reflection data, geochemistry, electromagnetic measurements and magneto telluric.

Electrical resistivity tomography that measures the spatial distribution and contrast of electrical resistivity; and induced polarisation that determines the electrical chargeability of subsurface materials are 2 geoelectrical methods that can identify manganese deposits and distribution. (Zaid, H. 2022).

Graphite is an electrically conductive and diamagnetic mineral, and electrical and electromagnetic (EM) methods are the first choice for exploration. These methods exploit the differing responses of various minerals to electromagnetic fields. By analysing these responses, geologists pinpoint potential areas with promising graphite concentrations (Baranwal, 2023).

Mining and production

Most of the commercial lithium production comes from brine water. The extraction of lithium from this source is straightforward. The liquid is pumped from the subsurface and placed into pools where the water evaporates and leaves behind lithium. During this process, hydrated lime is added to the brine to remove unwanted elements. When lithium concentration reaches a certain point, the brine is pumped to a facility where the metal is extracted.

Some lithium is from a clay-rich mineral called spodumene and mining is performed in open bits. This requires a combination of fresh water and toxic chemicals which are environmentally damaging. After mining of the ore, it is crushed and heated to 2012 F. Then it is cooled to 140F, milled and heated up again. Including sulphuric acid at 282F. This process is known as acid leaching. During this last step, the hydrogen in the sulphuric acid is replaced with lithium irons to produce lithium sulfate.

The most common method of extracting nickel from surrounding minerals is the usage of high-temperature smelting and refining techniques. This process is suitable for high nickel content sulphide ores.

Cobalt mining is a very controversial process. Various techniques including underground, open pit, hydro-metallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods are applied. However, the majority is produced as a by-product from copper and nickel mines. Figure 4 is an ariel image of an open bit cobalt mine in the Democratic Republic of Congo. This image was obtained by the Washington Post and clearly shows children being used for the extraction process.

Most manganese is extracted from open pit mines, using explosives and excavators. The material is then heated with carbon or coke and a reducing agent, such as aluminum produces the manganese metal.

Graphite ore is mined in open pit and underground mines. Its extraction is an unwieldly process that uses mechanical and chemical processes. First graphite is mined in chunk forms and then hammered to break those chunks apart. The next step involves powdering by ball-milling and the last phase consists of carbon enrichment by floating the material in water.

Environmental and social impacts

Lithium mining has several negative environmental issues. The extraction of the element from water can result in freshwater pollution. The production of lithium batteries can generate a higher carbon output than the manufacturing of conventional cars. During the mining and extraction process, a large amount of mineral waste is generated. Some of the deposits exhibit high radioactive levels. If the mine is near a population centre, dust and noise pollution is a danger and can lead to serious health issues.

Nickel is considered a ‘finite’ resource and as such mining is unsustainable. The upside of this is that nickel can easily be recycled. The primary issues with nickel mining are around the high demand for energy during the mining and extraction process and environmental impacts (Mudd, G., 2010). The most common method to extract nickel from surrounding minerals is the usage of high-temperature smelting and refining techniques. This process is suitable for high nickel content sulphide ores. However, it generates a lot of slag, dust and greenhouse emissions which is obviously problematic as the goal of using batteries for energy storage is to reduce greenhouse emissions generated by non-renewable fossil fuel.

Cobalt mining is a dangerous industry and faces the following main challenges:

• Hazardous working conditions as cobalt dust is toxic and affects workers in the mines and the wider community. 
• Child labour. 70% of all cobalt is mined in the Democratic Republic of Congo and estimates indicate that there may be as many as 40,000 children working the mines. 
• Environmental impact: Cobalt mining is linked to grave human rights abuses that includes miners’ exposure to unsafe worksites, forced evictions and exploitation. 
• Toxic dumping of polluted water - Contaminates crops. - Leads to substantial cancer risk increase. 

Exposure to manganese can lead to severe health issues and will damage multiple organs and it is one of the leading mining pollutants. As it is mostly mined in open pit mines, it also directly destroys the landscape and pollutes water sources. Deforestation, habitat degradation, and water contamination are serious side effects of graphite mining.

In summary, mining and processing those essential minerals for producing batteries can be very damaging to the ecological and environmental landscape and needs to be carefully monitored.

Future directions

Innovation in exploration and processing:

• Advanced techniques: drone-based surveys, hyperspectral imaging, and artificial intelligence (AI) can streamline exploration, identify promising deposits, and minimise environmental impact (Akewar & Chandak, 2024; Brack et al., 2023). These techniques could be fundamental approaches to optimise conservation.
• Sustainable Processing: Developing less water-intensive and energy-demanding processing methods in conjunction with increased battery recycling will be crucial to responsible sustainment initiatives (Garcia et al., 2023).

Battery technology advancements:

• Next-generation batteries: Solid-state batteries have less risk, higher energy density, faster charging, and reduced reliance on traditional minerals (Machin et al., 2023).
• Aalternative anode materials: Research on silicon or lithium metal anodes that are eco-friendly with potentially higher energy densities compared to graphite is ongoing (Mishra et al., 2023).
• Cathode material design: Optimising cathode materials through composition control and doping can improve performance and potentially reduce reliance on cobalt (Ge et al., 2024). Cobalt-free cathodes are emerging as a front-runner in the race for next-generation battery designs.

Supply chain

Transparency:

• Ethical sourcing initiatives: Collaboration between governments, companies, and NGOs is vital to ensure responsible mining practices. Initiatives like the battery minerals Initiative (BMI) aiming to address ethical concerns in the DRC (Mancini et al., 2020).
• Traceability and certification schemes: Implementing robust traceability systems can ensure responsible sourcing throughout the supply chain (Razak et al., 2023; Sun & Wang, 2019).

Conclusions

A paradigm shift is underway in the battery minerals sector, with next-generation materials poised to join forces with or replace legacy counterparts to unlock new heights of efficiency and performance. As demand for clean energy solutions grows, innovation across the battery value chain is crucial for its future. However, ethical sourcing, potential supply chain disruptions, and rising demand pose challenges. Sustainable practices, technological advancements, international collaboration and innovative solutions can ensure responsible and resilient battery minerals’ future for a clean energy revolution. With demand on the rise, finding solutions is not just important, it is a critical, value-added mandate for the uninterrupted development of clean energy technologies.

We discussed those 5 main minerals: lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese and graphite. All of them can be discovered using commonly applied geophysical and geological technologies, such as electromagnetic, gravity and hyperspectral to name a few. Seismic plays a role in defining the shape and size of the deposits. Lithium is readily available and can be mined without major issues although waste products resulting from the extraction process can leak into the ground water system. However, for example cobalt is difficult to obtain and the mining of this mineral is questionable as child labour is involved. We believe that it is crucial that new and better technologies are being developed that greatly reduce the social and environmental impact of mining those rare earth minerals that are essential for battery production.

References

• Akewar, M. and Chandak, M. [2024] Hyperspectral imaging algorithms and applications: A review. TechRxiv, 1(1), 1-35. DOI: 10.36227/techrxiv.24743562.v2
• Alanazi, F. [2023] Electric vehicles: Benefits, challenges, and potential solutions for widespread adaptation. Applied Science, 13(1), 1-23. DOI: 10.3390/app13106016
• Amir, M., Deshmukh, R.G., Khalid, H.M., Said, Z., Raza, A., Muyeen, S.M., Nizami, A., Elavarasan, R.M., Saidur, R. and Sopian, K. [2023] Energy storage technologies: An integrated survey of developments, global economical/environmental effects, optimal scheduling model, and sustainable adaption policies. Journal of Energy Storage, 72(1), 1-34. DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2023.108694
• Baranwal, V., Ronning, J., Larsen, B., Su, Y., Zhone, B., Lui, Y., Ren, Xiujan R., Gautneb, H. and Gellein, J. [2024] A case history of graphite exploration in North Norway integrating various geophysical surveys. Mineral, 14(3), 266. DOI: 10.3390/ min14030266
• Brack, I.V., Kindel, A., Flamarion, de Oliveira, L. F.B. and Lahoz-Monfort, J.J. [2023] Optimally designing drone-based surveys for wildlife abundance estimation with N-mixture models. Methodology in Ecology and Evolution, 14(3), 898-910. DOI: 10.1111/2041-210X.14054
• Brown, P. [2014] Doc Brown’s Advanced Chemistry Part 15.5 uv and visible absorption spectra of nickel complex ions - transition metal absorption spectroscopy – nickel compounds – complexes.
• Dudley, C., Putnam, T., Loomis, K. and Ramirez, V. [2022] Reservoir characterization of a lithium-bearing super-brine complex using seismic inversion and magnetotellurics. Second International Meeting of Applied Geoscience and Energy.
• Dutta, D. [2024] The rise of zinc-air batteries in sustainable energy storage. Battery Technology. Available here.
• Eramet. [2009] Annual reference document 2008. Eramet Group, April 2009, Paris, France.
• Garcia, L.V., Ho, Y., Thant, M.M.M., Han, D.S. and Lim, J.W. [2023] Lithium in a sustainable circular economy: A comprehensive review. Processes, 11(418), 1-24. DOI: 10.3390/pr11020418
• Hassan, Q., Algburi, S., Sameen, A. Z., Salman, H. M. and Jaszczur, M. [2023] A review of hybrid renewable energy systems: Solar and wind-powered solutions: Challenges, opportunities, and policy implications. Results in Engineering, 20(1), 1-25. DOI: 10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101621
• Hussain, N., Halim, A., Khan, Y.A., Ibrahim, S., & Haque, A. (2024). A comprehensive review on techniques and challenges of energy harvesting from distributed renewable energy sources for wireless sensor networks. Control Systems and Optimization Letters, 2(1), 1-8. DOI: 10.59247/csol.v2i1.60
• Insinna, T., Bassey, E. N., Märker, K., Collauto, A., Barra, A., & Grey, C. P. (2023). Graphite anodes for li-ion batteries: An electron paramagnetic resonance investigation. Chemistry of Materials, 35(14), 5497–5511. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.3c00860
• Machín, A., Morant, C., & Márquez, F. (2024). Advancements and challenges in solid-state battery technology: An in-depth review of solid electrolytes and anode innovations. Batteries, 10(29), 1-34. DOI: 10.3390/batteries10010029
• Mancini, L. & Eslava, N., Traverso, M., & Mathieux, F. (2020). Responsible and sustainable sourcing of battery raw materials. Joint Research Center Technical Report. DOI: 10.2760/562951
• Miki, H., Yamamoto, K., Nakaki, H., Yoshinari, T., Nakanishi, K., Nakanishi, S., Iba, H., Miyawaki, J., Harada, Y., Kuwabara, A., Wang, Y., Watanabe, T., Matsunaga, T., Maeda, K., Kageyama, H., & Uchimoto, Y. (2024). Double-layered perovskite oxyfluoride cathodes with high capacity involving o–o bond formation for fluoride-ion batteries. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 146(6), 3844-3853. DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10871
• Mishra, A.K., Monika, and Patial, B.S. [2024] A review on recent advances in anode materials in lithium-ion batteries. Materials Today Electronics, 7, article 100089. DOI: 10.1016/j.mtelec.2024.100089
• Mudd, G. [2010] Global trends and environmental issues in nickel mining: Sulfides versus laterites. Ore Geology Reviews, 38(1), 9-26.
• Nazir, G., Rehman, A., Lee, J.H., Kim, C.H., Gautam, J., Heo, K., Hussain, S., Ikram, M., Al Obaid, A.A., Lee, S.Y. and Park, S.J. [2024] A review of rechargeable zinc-air batteries: Recent progress and future perspectives. Nano-Micro Letters, 16(138), 1-44. DOI: 10.1007/s40820-024-01328-1
• Razak, G.M., Hendry, L.C. and Stevenson, M. [2021] Supply chain traceability: A review of the benefits and its relationship with supply chain resilience. Production Planning & Control, 34(11), 1114-1134. DOI: 10.1080/09537287.2021.1983661
• Sun, S. and Wang, X. [2019] Promoting traceability for food supply chain with certification. Journal of Cleaner Production, 217, 658-665. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.296
• U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). [2023] Mineral commodity summaries: Graphite, 82-84. DOI: 10.3133/mcs2023
• U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). [2022] Mineral Commodity Summaries. Available here.
• U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). [2022] Annual Review 2021: Critical Minerals. Available here.
• Usiagu, G.S., Adekoya, O.O., Okoli, C.E., Daudu, C.D., Ekemenzie, I.O. and Ayorinde, O.B. [2024] LNG as a bride fuel in the transition to renewable energy: A global perspective. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 31(3), 742-749. DOI: 10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.2.0480
• Zaid, H., Arifin, M., Hussin, H., Basori, M. and Umor, M. [2022] Manganese ore exploration using electrical resistivity and induced polarization methods in Central Belt, Peninsular Malaysia. Near Surface Geophysics, 20(6). DOI: 10.1002/nsg.12204